Embed The ‘French’ mill in medieval Tuscany.

Full text of ' THE BOOK WAS DRENCHED OSMANIA UNIVERSITY LIBRARY Call No. ^ Accession No. Author Title ■ This book should be reto^^^^fore th^ Columbia Dictionary of Modern European Literature Columbia Dictionary of Modern European Literature HORATIO SMITH, General Editor COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY Columbia University Press, New York 1947 Copyright 1947, Columbia University Press, New York First Printing, February ig4y Second Printing, June 194^ Copyright under International Copyright Union All rights reserved Except for brief passages to be published in a review or as citation of authority, no part of this book may be reproduced in any form without the written permission of the publisher. MANUFACTURED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA Preface T he intention of this Dictionary is to provide a record and signed evaluations of the chief books of the important literary artists of all continental Europe — in the twentieth century and the immediately preceding and closely related decades. It would have made no sense to bow in mechanical respect to chronology, but 1870 or 1880 proved in many instances to be points of departure corresponding to the realities of literary and cultural and political history.

Victor Hugo who died in 1885 is not included because he represents earlier generations and moods; Baudelaire who died in 1867 is treated because much of later European poetry stems from him. The contributors have read the books in the languages in which these were written, ranging from the vernacular of Albania to that of the Ukraine. Thirty- one literatures are represented because that is how many there are, and 239 specialists have done the work because that is how many were qualified and available for what inevitably became a complicated and patience-taxing group enterprise. The total number of articles is 1 167, but here one cannot say blithely because that is how many there are. When is an author important, and why, and to whom, and for how long? In a recent lively and provocative consideration of the problem.

Writers and Their Critics, a Study of Misunderstanding, Henri Peyre notes that dictionaries are among the least revolutionary of human activi- ties and, in their nature, self-perpetuating. We were indeed less likely in the present instance to turn for authoritative selection of leading writers to earlier compilations of the same scope because these are virtually nonexistent, yet editor, consultants, and contributors might have been tempted to go through the numerous current manuals and perpetuate the choices found there. We encouraged each other not to do so. A Dictionary of Received Ideas is not the object. The constant attitude has been experimental. Collaborators were urged from the very beginning to be bold, free, direct, respectful only of the original documents.

In given cases, particularly of course with the extensive literatures of the great and so frequently articulate cultural powers, a number of con sultants, all with special experience and knowledge, were invited to draw up independently of each other lists of contemporary writers who were in their minds outstanding. Correspondence within each group was carried on until what could fairly be called a consensus was reached.

Five appraisers are not necessarily more right than one, and five conjectures, if you wish to call them that, or five hundred, do not make a certainty. At any rate the lists — let us not PREFACE vi say final but those we have ended by using — are honestly representative of common views of thoughtful experts of today.

We did not play the game of quotas. Anyone would agree that there are more writers in Russia important to the whole twentieth-century world than there are in the Faeroe Islands, and neither the principals nor any others are likely to be shocked that the general article on Russian literature runs to 10,000 words and the one on the literature of the Faeroe Islands to 350 words.

This is how much Professors Simmons and Einarsson wrote on these subjects. But there were no neatly defined initial pre-assignments, and no scholar, no critic, not even any superhistorian or Supreme Court of Cultural Values could have made them.

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Names multiplied and distribution of space began to take on a certain pattern as the project grew. Cross references made by contributors in one field to authors in another field reminded us sharply of lacunae. It eventually worked out, to give sample statistics in round numbers, that we have included 200 French authors, 150 Germans, 100 Russians, 100 Italians, 100 Spaniards, 50 Poles, 40 Czechs. Some fields have received attention partly in terms of newness, since no book in English had previously made information about them accessible. Most of the articles were written directly in English, even though certain contributors more recently established in the United States had done their first living, speaking, and writing in another European language. The English of a man of foreign background and culture often has a freshness of flavor not vouchsafed the native, and if the reader is occasionally startled in this volume by an idiom less than orthodox this may have all the interest and value of shock.

Our specialists have been aided and abetted not only to give their own opinions but to do this in their own style. The invaluable assistants of the editor, in the offices of Columbia University Press, were understandably inclined to be more respectful of traditional form; there have been occasions where the editor in the presence of gentle and certainly defensible suggestions from the Press has written firmly in the margin the vigorous four letters of the word “stet”: — and of course is responsible for the consequences. The editor favors the principle of a foreign colleague who has learned to write an amazingly effective English: try honestly and hard not to be original and then do not greatly mind if you are. Or as another has put it, true originality is the kind you have in spite of yourself.

The individual manner of the contributor has not been resisted, and within limits neither have his enthusiasms. Any specialist easily develops predilections. Had all superlatives been kept they might have started to cancel each other out, and perspective had to be maintained. But the constant policy has been to choose contributors capable of a thrill about their subjects — even at times a thrill of disagreement — and then not to frustrate them. Some of them as they read this will glance towards the editor a little wryly — in terms of the practice PREFACE • • VII about quotations. How many were eager to share with the reader the savor of a beautifully appropriate and revealing passagel The Dictionary could have expanded rapidly into an Anthology. But the very conditions of high concen- tration in a single volume forbade this, and everybody finally accepted the discipline of the genre.

To have read all the articles in typescript, revised typescript, proof, revised proof, brings one to the well-known state of encyclopedic ignorance, not to say comprehensive bewilderment. What does the whole thing prove, as the geom- etrician said after hearing one of Racine’s plays. Two complementary observa- tions are offered, for whatever they may be worth.

Issues of nationalism kept emerging, especially with certain less conspicuous and by the same token more assertive countries. This local pride can be accepted sympathetically, and also to our own advantage since the fervor throws light on the real import of the local achievement. We have been told that to con- sider literature as a document is one of the most fallacious heresies of our times, but one may prefer to remain something of a heretic — like Balzac with his ambition to “faire concurrence k I’etat civil.” We may still think there is merit in Dorothy Thompson’s claim that one gets closer to the truth about American small-town life in Sinclair Lewis’s Main Street than in the Lynds’ Middletown. The reader eager to understand the ways of a particular European country in our time will find significant leads in what the contributors have assembled in this Dictionary.

On the other hand there are many cases where one returns to human nature in the large. A critic said not long ago that whether we like it or not “this is a world of particulars and the universal is buried under the specific.” After examining details about more than a thousand individual writers and I know not how many thousands of their books, I still doubt the world of particulars. Santayana, who does not like his times, speaks of surrender of essence to miscellany, and a dictionary is surely a miscellany, yet the surrender seems to have been far from total. When we read here, to give only one example, that Unamuno found himself and his Spain in Job and Pascal and Kierkegaard — well, we may remember pleasantly and hopefully that Emerson said that Aris- tophanes and Hafiz and Rabelais are full of American history. Some of the most authoritative articles reveal such a fusion of the timely and the timeless. There need be no great objection to being dated, a necessary way of being identified. What is offered here may some day appear a quaint record of contemporary taste; some earnest and painstaking scholar two hundred years from now may make the book the subject of a learned communication to be read before whatever is then the equivalent of a Modern Language Association.

We do not know how many of these authors will seem significant then. We have simply done what we could to be faithful to our own values. PREFACE • • • Vlll Immediately following is a complete list of contributors, with a key to the initials used at the end of each article. Some have written one piece, some twenty, some thirty. I do not know how to select the persons to receive thanks above all others; there is no particular point at which courtesy or justice would permit me to stop. To them all, for industry, punctuality, patience, skill, tol- erance of the editorial pencil — and to the staff of Columbia University Press for the same qualities — I offer lasting gratitude. Horatio Smith Columbia University June, 1946 Contributors A.

ARRANGED ALPHABETICALLY ACCORDING TO THE INITIALS WHICH APPEAR AT THE CONCLUSION OF EACH ARTICLE IN THE DICTIONARY Anna Balakian, Syracuse University Adolph B. Benson, Yale University Adolf Busse, Hunter College Am^rico Castro, Princeton University Andr^ C. L^vcque, University of Wisconsin Anthony C.

Rinaldini, New York City Angel del Rio, Columbia University Albert Feuillerat, Yale University Alrik Gustafson, University of Minnesota Andres Iduarte, Columbia University Adriaan J. Barnouw, Columbia University Axel Johan Uppvall, University of Pennsylvania Alexander Kaun,* University of California, Berkeley Albert McVitty, Falmouth, Mass. Gisolfi, New York City Angelo Philip Bertocci, Bates College Arthur P. Coleman, Columbia University Alphonse R.

Favreau, University of Michigan Aaron Schaffer, University of Texas Alfred Senn, University of Pennsylvania Albert Schinz,* University of Pennsylvania Archibald T. MacAllister, Princeton University Alphonse V. Roche, Northwestern University Albin Wid^n, Minneapolis, Minn. Woodbridge, Reed College Blanche Price, Western College Bayard Q.

Morgan, Stanford University Bluma Ren^e Lang, Wells College Clarence A. Manning, Columbia University Cesar Barja, University of California, Los Angeles Clarissa B. Cooper, New York City Charlotte E. Forsyth, College of Notre Dame of Maryland Carl E. Dahlstrom, University of Michigan Carlo F. Weiss, New York City • Deceased.

CONTRIBUTORS C. Bang, Baltimore, Md. Bourcier, Middlebury College Claire Murray, White Plains, N.Y. Singleton, The Johns Hopkins University Charles Weir, Jr., Cornell University Charles Wharton Stork, Harcum Junior College Daisy Fornacca, New York City Doris King Arjona, John B.

Stetson University Domenico Vittorini, University of Pennsylvania Ren^ Etiemble, New York City Evelyn Beatrice Macht, New York City Ebe Cagli, Cambridge, Mass. Stillman, New York City Ernst Feise, The Johns Hopkins University Esther Fenili, Vassar College Edith F. Helman, Simmons College Eugenio Florit, New York City Ernesto G. Da Cal, New York University Emilio Gonzdlez-L6pez, Hunter College Einar Haugen, University of Wisconsin E. Herman Hespelt, New York University Erich Hofacker, Washington University Ernest H.

Wilkins, Oberlin College Ernst Jockers, University of Pennsylvania Ernest J. Simmons, Columbia University Elizabeth Judas, New York City Ernst Morwitz, University of North Carolina E. Fleissner, Wells College Elliott M. Grant, Williams College Eduardo Nicol, University of Mexico Ernst Rose, New York University Eugene ShefFer, Columbia University Edmund Zawacki, University of Wisconsin Fernand Baldensperger, University of California, Los Angel Friedrich Bruns, University of Wisconsin Federico de Onis, Columbia University Ferran de Pol, Mexico, D.F. Maurino, Triple Cities College of Syracuse University Francisco Garcia Lorca, New York City Franz H. Mautner, Ohio Wesleyan University Francis J.

Whitfield, Harvard University Frances Keene, New York City Frank Spiecker,* University of Illinois • Deceased. Xi CONTRIBUTORS F. Sanchez y Escribano, University of Michigan Frederick W. Heuser, Columbia University Gino Bigongiari, Columbia University Gladys Bigongiari, New York City George de Santillana, Massachusetts Institute of Technology Gaston Gille, New York City George I. Dale, Cornell University Gunther Keil, Hunter College Gilbert Mignacca, Providence, R.I. Moser, University of Wisconsin Giuseppe Prezzolini, Columbia University Gertrude R.

Jasper, Hunter College George R. Noyes, University of California, Berkeley Gioconda Savini, New York City Glen Shortliffe, Queen’s University, Kingston, Ontario Georg Strandvold, Decorah, Iowa Hanna Astrup Larsen,* The American-Scandinavian Foundation Hermann Boeschenstein, University College, Toronto Hermann Barnstorff, University of Missouri Halina Chybowska, New York City H.

Chonon Berkowitz,* University of Wisconsin Henry C. Hatfield, Williams College Howard C. Rice, Harvard University Helen Eitinger Pilla, New York City H^l^ne Harvitt, Brooklyn College Halvdan Koht, Washington, D.C. Chevalier, University of California, Berkeley Harold M. March, Swarthmore College Henri Peyre, Yale University Helmut Rehder, University of Wisconsin Howard R. Marraro, Columbia University Horatio Smith, Columbia University Heinrich Schneider, Cornell University Herbert Steiner, Pennsylvania State College H. Forest, University of Pennsylvania Harvey W.

Hewett-Thayer, Princeton University Henry Wadsworth Longfellow Dana, Cambridge, Mass. Nordmeyer, University of Michigan Hugh W.

Puckett, Barnard College Irma Brandeis, Bard College Izidor Cankar, Quebec Isabelle de Wyzewa, Barnard College • Deceased. CONTRIBUTORS J.-A. Jean-Albert B^d^, Columbia University Jan- Albert Goris, New York City J.

Watkins, The American-Scandinavian Foundation John B. Olli, College of the City of New York Joaquin Casalduero, Smith College John C.

Blankenagel, Wesleyan University John C. Di Lorenzo, New York City J.

David Yarbro, U.S. Naval Academy J. Shaw, University of Toronto Jos^ Famadas, Columbia University Joseph F. De Simone, Brooklyn College Jane F. Goodloe, Goucher College Joseph F. Jackson, University of Illinois James F. Mason, Cornell University Jan Greshoff, Capetown, South Africa Jackson Mathews, Central Washington College of Education Joseph M.

Carriere, University of Virginia John Meyer, Chicago, 111. Miquel i Verges, University of Mexico J.

Norton Cru, Williams College Justin O’Brien, Columbia University J. Posin, Stanford University Joseph Remenyi, Western Reserve University Joan Sales, University of Barcelona Jeanne Varney, Columbia University Karl H. Menges, Columbia University Kurt Pinthus, Washington, D.C. Whitmore, Smith College Krystyna Zbieranska, Toronto Louis Adamic, Milford, N.J.

Louis Allard, Harvard University Louis E. Sorieri, New York City Louis E. Van Norman, San Diego, Calif. Leon Feraru, Long Island University L. Moffatt, University of Virginia Leon Kochnitzky, New York City Leon Stilman, Cornell University Lon Tinkle, Southern Methodist University L^on Verriest, Dartmouth College Marie Buff a, Brooklyn College Marie C. Mengers, New York City Mathurin Dondo, University of California, Berkeley Margarita de Mayo, Vassar College Maurice Edgar Coindreau, Princeton University CONTRIBUTORS M. Max Fischer, New York City Margaret Gilman, Bryn Mawr College Milan Herzog, New York City M.

Benardete, Brooklyn College M. Mespoulet, Barnard College Marion M. Coleman, New York City Mario Pei, Columbia University Maria Piccirrilli, Vassar College Marc Slonim, New York City Mary T.

Ragno, New York City Marion Vaux Hendrickson, New York City Nicholson B. Adams, University of North Carolina Nelo Drizari, Columbia University N. Tremblay, University of Arizona Nancy Lenkeith, New York City Norman L. Torrey, Columbia University Nikander Strelsky,* Vassar College Oleg Maslenikov, University of California, Berkeley Olav Paus Grunt, New York City O. Fleissner, Wells College Pauline Albala, New York City Pierre A. Clamens, Columbia University Peter A. Pertzoff, Cornell University Pierre Brodin, Lyc^e Fran^ais de New York Paul Bonnet, University of California, Los Angeles Peter M.

Riccio, Columbia University Peter P. Munisteri, New York City Patrick Romanell, Barnard College Paul R.

Pope, Cornell University Pedro Salinas, The Johns Hopkins University Richard Alewyn, Queens College, New York City Rudolph Altrocchi, University of California, Berkeley Ren^ Bell^, University of Southern California R. Military Academy Robert K. Spaulding, University of California, Berkeley Ramdn Martinez-L6pez, University of Texas Rudolph Schevill,* University of California, Berkeley Ruth Shepard Phelps Morand, New York City Ren6 Taupin, Hunter College Ren^ Wellek, Yale University S. Rhodes, College of the City of New York Sophie A. Vrahnos, New York City Stanley Burnshaw, New York City • Deceased CONTRIBUTORS S. Xiv Sheila Cudahy Pellegrini, Barat College Stef in Einarsson, The Johns Hopkins University S. Eugene Scalia, Brooklyn College Samuel H.

Cross, Harvard University Sol Liptzin, College of the City of New York Sister M. Serafina Mazza, Seton Hill College Samuel Niger, Yiddish Scientific Institute, New York City Sigmund Skard, Washington, D.C. Weiner, New York City Signe Toksvig, Bethel, Conn. Teresa Carbonara, Barnard College Thomas G.

Bergin, Cornell University Thaddeus Mitana, Alliance College T. Campbell, Northwestern University Vincent Gagliadino, New York City Vincent Guilloton, Smith College Victor Lange, Cornell University William A. Nitze, University of California, Los Angeles Walter A. Reichart, University of Michigan W. Hunter Beckwith, Hofstra College Winthrop H. Root, Williams College William J.

Everts, Colgate University Walter J. Mueller, New York City William J. Rose, University of London Watson Kirkconnell, Hamilton, Ontario W. Cornell, Yale University William K. Pfeiler, University of Nebraska William L. Fichter, Brown University William L.

Schwartz, Stanford University Wilbur M. Frohock, Columbia University Werner Neuse, Middlebury College Wolfgang Paulsen, State University of Iowa William R. Gaede, New York City Columbia Dictionary of Modern European Literature A Aakjaer, Jeppe (1866-1930, Danish novelist and poet), was the son of poor peasants in Jutland, lie was hired out as a herd’s boy and experienced himself some of the shock- ing conditions which he afterwards described in Bondens S0n (1899; The Peasant’s Son) and Vredens D0rn; et Tyendes Saga (1904; Children of Wrath; the Saga of a Servant). The boy had hardly any schooling, but at 18 went to Copenhagen to study and after 10 years, interrupted by alisences in order to earn money to go on, managed to pass the entrance examinations to the university. He then returned to his own people and made his living by writing and lecturing on social- istic lines (which cost him a jail sentence). He was first married, in 1893, to the novelist Marie Bregendahl (q.xf.), was divorced from her, and later married the artist Nana Krog. About the beginning of the present century he was able to acquire a farm, which he called Jenle (Alone).

This he made, a little paradoxically, into a center of folk life and every midsummer held a sort of rustic Chautauqua to which thousands of people came in order to listen to lectures on political and social questions, sing songs, and enjoy a convivial time. Aakjicr was not satisfied with the knowledge of the Jutland peasants which he had absorbed from childhood, but applied himself to study of their language, local history, conditions of living, and attitude toward life. He wrote a biography of the leading Jutland writer of an older generation, Steen Steen.scn Blicher. Aakjaer’s fiction is strongly agitatorial, though sometimes his short stories are gems of humor and sym- pathetic understanding. There is no doubt that he contributed to improving the lot of the very poor. At the same time he inspired the common people with a sense of their human worth and with love of the land. He is most nearly classic in his lyrics, which have earned for him the name of the Danish Burns.

The best known are Rugens Sange (1906; Songs of the Rye). Written sometimes in a Jutland dialect and dealing with the nature and people of Jutland, they have nevertheless become the property of the whole Danish people and, set to music, are sung wherever Danes gather.

See: Waldemar Westergaard, “Jeppe Aak- jaer,” American-Scandinavian Review, XII (1924), 665-669. Aanrud, Hans (1863-, Norwegian writer of short stories and plays), was born of a peasant family in Gausdal in the central region of the country. Since his d^ljut in 1887 he has lived his most active years in Oslo as a critic and literary man. He has written harsh modern comedies on the life of the lower middle class of the capital; but his fame rests on short stories and children’s books pictur- ing the peasants of his home valley before the coming of industrialism. Aanrud’s horizon is that of his farmers. His conception of society is static, his psychology may have a touch of conventionalism.

But within his narrow field he is a master: love makes him seeing. His observation is that of the realist, but he ap- proaches his subject with a respectful devo- tion which links him to the contemporary “home-soil novelists.” In his short stories the valley is reborn with intimate preciseness of detail; landscape, climate and atmosphere, work and play, characters and situations, are portrayed with striking clarity. Aanrud has little interest in the somber and complicated aspects of life. His chef-d’oeuvre, “En vin- ternat” (Eng.

Tr., “A Winter Night,” Ameri- can-Scandinavian Review, Vol. XVI, 1928, pp. 483-491), in En vinternat og andre fortaellinger (1896), is a drama of passion and tragedy compressed into a few pages of terrify- ing reticence; a few of his other stories give surprising glimpses into the subconscious. But what he mostly loves to bring out are the good, solid qualities of his people, their simple wisdom, their patience and stalwart health, described with mild humor and often through a sun haze of memory. With special tenderness he follows the fate of the weak and humble — the old folks, the children, the poor; his charming children’s books are pure idyls, almost without a shadow (c.g., Sidsel Sidsaerk, 1903, S0lve Solfeng, igio; Eng.

Of both in Sidsel Longskirt and Solve Sun- trap, Two Children of Norway, 1935). His style springs from that of the popular tradi- tion, terse, restrained, and suggestive. It is Aanrud who has set the tone for the short story of Norwegian farm life. Aasen, Ivar (1813-1896, Norwegian linguist and poet), bom in 0 rsta, Sunnm0re, was the son of a tenant farmer. Self-taught, he became the standard-bearer of the Norwegian countryman’s movement towards cultural and ABELL 4 linguistic self-expression.

When 23 years old he staked out his revolutionary life plan: to create for Norway a truly national standard language, based on the speech of the rural districts, which should take the place of the current Dano-Norwegian. He began his dialect studies in 1838, and out of these grew the first systematic grammars and dictionaries of Norwegian dialects, Det norske folkesprogs grammaiik (1848; Grammar of the Norwegian Popular Language) and Ordbog over det norske folkesprog (1850; Dictionary of the Norwegian Popular Language). But Aasen did more than provide the outward structure of the new language which he proposed for his peo[)le in 1853 and called Landsmaal (country language). He also proved by emi- nent example that his language could be a medium of poetry. The cream of his folk lyrics are found in Symra (1863; The Anem- one) and in his folk play Ervingen (1855; The Heir). These works have become household treasures in all Norway, particularly the countryside.

Their themes are drawn from the homely, everyday feelings and experiences of the countryman, and they emphasize a love of home and the native culture, a bit on the bleak and sober side, but deeply human. Koht, “Ivar Aasen, granskar og maalreisar,” in Minneskrift (1913); E. Haugen, “The Linguistic Development of Ivar Aasen’s New Norse,' Publications of the Modern Language Association, XLVIII (1933), 558- 597, and “Ivar Aasen as a Writer of Dano- Norwegian,” Scandinavian Studies and Notes, XH (i932)» 53-59- E. Abell, Kjeld (1901-, Danish dramatist), born in Ribe, southwest Jutland, is one of the few really arresting Scandinavian dramatists of our day. His early career seems to have been about equally divided between a serious interest in political science and a remarkable flair for stage designing, the latter interest ultimately leading to his dramatic authorship. His first play, Melodien, der blev vaek (1935; Eng. The Melody That Got Lost, 1939), with its delicate lyric touch, its gracious, studied charm, and its remarkably skillful use of modern theatrical “revue' techniques, was an instantaneous success in Denmark, where the half-realistic, half-idyllic folk character found the subtle indirections of form and senti- ment in the play exactly to its taste.

Five other plays have come in rapid succession from Abell’s pen, the most important of which is the serious modern problem-play Anna Sophie Hedvig (1939; Eng. In Scandinavian Plays of the Twentieth Century, Ser. Here Abell’s early penchant for theatrical 'modernism” in its most capricious forms gives way to a much more sober, essentially realistic form, and the subtle indirections of dramatic sentiment so characteristic of most of the earlier plays are transformed into certain sharply focused ideas which bear un- mistakably upon basic contemporary political problems. The central ethical problem of the play — is it right to commit what society calls “murder' in defense of one’s deepest moral sentiments? — is posed specifically with refer- ence to contemporary political developments. Though the main action of the play takes place within the limited confines of a school world in a small Danish provincial town, the obvious “message' of the play (that the indi- vidual has the moral right to take a life when his sense of justice has been outraged) is aimed at the political doctrines and practices of European Nazi and Fascist thought. The play contains also a severe arraignment of a modern bourgeois society as such, and the positive position taken is strongly leftist if not actually Communist in its ultimate social and political implications.

The Communist thought is not, however, very clearly de- veloped in the play, chiefly perhaps because the play centers its dramatic focus most sharply upon the theme of human protest in its immediate psychological and ethical forms rather than upon the broader concerns of economic, social, and political theory and programs. What the future has in store for Abell as a dramatist is difficult to say. One thing, however, seems clear at present: these six plays bear indubitable witness to the fact that no other living Scandinavian dramatist has such an amazing control of the purely technical resources of the modern stage.

And it may be added that such a play as Anna Sophie Hedvig suggests that Abell’s genius has in it rich reserves of dramatic material which grow immediately and unafraid out of the blood-soaked soil of a contemporary world with all its brutal challenge to serious modern thought. See: Alrik Gustafson, “Introduction,' in Scandinavian Plays of the Twentieth Century, Ser. About, Edmond (1828-1885, French novelist, playwright, and journalist), was born at Dieuze in Lorraine. He attended the Lyc^e Charle- magne in Paris, where he proved himself a brilliant student, then entered the Ecole Normale Sup^rieure, and in 1851 won a state 5 ACHARD scholarship and spent the three next years at the Ecole Fran9aise d’Ath^nes.

Although very erudite, he was not destined to remain a mere scholar. On his return to Paris he published a volume of bright, witty, and at times satiri- cal reporting.

La Grhce contemporaine (1854), which opened to him the doors of the Revue des deux mondes. In 1855, however, the novel Tolla (Eng. Tr., 1855; Tolla is apparently an adaptation of Vittoria Savarelli’s Storia del secolo XIX, 1841) raised a tempest of indigna- tion among critics, who accused him of plagiarism; and the storm had not yet abated when a three-act comedy of his, Guillery (earlier title, L’Effronti), dismally failed after two performances (1856). In a series of witty and impertinent articles which appeared in the Figaro above the signature Valentin de Qudvilly, About cheerfully flayed his de- tractors.

In the meanwhile, by his successful Voyage A travers VExposition des Beaux-Arts (1855) and a succession of amusing sketches in the Moniteur, Mariages de Paris, he had fully vindicated himself. His exuberance found an- other outlet in four novels which to this day are widely read: Le Roi des Montagues (1856; Eng. The King of the Mountains, 1861, 1897, 1902), an amusing story of Greek bandits, made into an opera in 1913 by Victor Eton, Germaine (1857), Les Echasses de Maitre Pierre (1857), and Trente et quarante (1858). About had also traveled in Italy, sojourning for a while in Rome, and had written a violent satire against the temporal power of the pope, La Question romaine (1859; Eng. The Roman Question, 1859), which was first pub- lished in Brussels because permission to pub- lish it in France was for a time withheld. He continued his antipapal campaign through weekly articles in the Opinion nationale, which were then published under the general title Lettres d’un bon jeune homme A sa cousine Madeleine (1861) and of which a new series appeared in 1863. In lighter mood he ofTered in 1859 a one-act play, Risette, ou les Millions de la mansarde, given at the Gymnase, but at the same time he was writing a great five-act drama containing very bold anti- Roman implications.

This piece, Gaetano, was accepted by the Thc‘Stre Fran^ais but not pro- duced there; the Od^on staged it in 1862, and a storm of protests caused it to be withdrawn after only four evenings; it was given re- peatedly in provincial cities, never without causing an uproar. About’s political activity was kept up in articles, pamphlets, and books (e.g., Le ProgrAs, 1864: L’ABC du travailleur, 1868) which have lost interest today. When the Franco-Prussian War broke out, he went as a reporter to the battlefields. After the armistice he joined the ranks of the Republi- cans, supported Thiers, and together with Sarcey {q.v) and a few others founded the SiAcle (1871), which was characterized by strong anticlerical and antimonarchistic senti- ments. L’Alsace (1872) is a severe indictment of the Bismarckian policy and a warning that Alsace will prove to be a vulture tearing the side of the German Empire.

About never ceased writing novels: L'Homme A I’oreille cassee (1861), an amusing and fanciful episode of the Napoleonic Wars, Le Nez d’un notaire (1862), Le Cas de M. Guirin (1862), Madelon (1863). Some of his earlier plays have been re- published in a collection called Thidtre impossible. In 1869 appeared Le Fellah: Sou- venirs d’Egypte. About presented himself for election to the French Academy in 1870, but his political and religious writings had deeply offended a ma- jority of the members, who denied him their votes.

Fourteen years later, in 1884, he was elected to the seat of Jules Sandeau, but died before the oflicial reception. Thi^baut, Edmond About (1936). Abromowitz, Sholem Yakob, see Mendele mocher sforim. Achard, Marcel (1899-, French dramatist), was born at Lyon. His love of the theatre was re- vealed very early; at the age of seven he told the principal of the school he attended that he would become a dramatist. At the age of 10 a puppet play he wrote was produced.

Critics agree that Achard's plays belong to the theatre of fantasy. His first success was Voulez-vous jouer avec mod (Atelier, 1923), in which the characters are clowns and the action takes place in a circus. The dialogue is clever and charming. In La Vie est belle (Th^Atre de la Madeleine, 1928) the hero is a character, here named Charlemagne, whom Achard intro- duces in several later plays — a sort of 'beloved vagabond.” The author throws together, in improbable situations, characters who in ordi- nary life would have little opportunity to meet. The joy of living is the dominant note of the play. Jean de la lune (Corned ie des Champs-Elys^es, 1929) also enjoyed long popu- larity as a play and as a film.

The principal male character is related to the Charlemagne of La Vie est belle. He is an idealist, and although he seems to be a dreamer, he under- stands human psychology. His faith in the woman he loves, despite her infidelity, tri- umphs at the end and forces her to accept his ADAM 6 philosophy. A more somber note is sounded in La Belle Mariniire (Com^die Fran^aise, 1929). Domino (Commie des Champs-Elys6es, 1932; Eng. Tr., 1932) was played in New York. In his criticism of Petrus (Com^die des Champs-Elysdes, 1934), Jacques Copeau (q.v.), of the Theatre du Vieux Colombier, uses the words fantasy, imagination, caprice, grace, en- chantment, gayety, wit.

Achard’s plays com- bine all these traits. Delpit, Paris — Thidtre contempo- rain, I (1925), 111, 11 (1938), 127-130; P.

Morand, “Marcel Achard and the Modern Stage,” Romanic Review, XVII (1926), 349-354. Adam, Paul (1862-1920, French novelist), was born in Paris. His great-grandfather and his grandfather were officers in Napoleon's army, and to them he is indebted for his interest in men of action and power. In his first novel. Chair molle (1885), Adam shows traces of the naturalistic approach, but he was also closely connected with the symbolists {see French symbolism). He founded several magazines. Carcan (with Jean Ajalbert), Symboliste (with Gustave Kahn and Jean Mordas, qq.v), Vogue (with Kahn), and the second series of the Revue independante.

In collaboration with Mor^as he wrote Le The chez Miranda and Les Demoiselles Joubert (both 1886). In the year 1889 he actively supported the political party of General Boulanger but, promptly discouraged, he turned back to his literary activities. A prolific writer, Paul Adam conceived his novels in groups.

In a series of 16 volumes entitled Le Temps et la vie are found a tale of witchcraft and satanism in the manner of Huysmans (q-v.), Eire, ou les Feux du Sab 6 at (1888); an autobiographical story, Les Images sentimentales (1893): a powerful tetralogy. La Force (1889), UEnfant d’Austerlitz (1902), La Ruse (1903), Au soleil de juillet (1903); and also Le Trust (1910) and Le Lion d’Arras (1920). Another group, UEpoque, consists of 20 novels. Besides these cyclic fictions, Paul Adam published 18 volumes of essays {e.g., Vues d'Amirique, 1906; La Morale de la France, 1908; La Morale de Vcducation, 1908), four volumes inspired by the war of 1914, and four dramas. Compact, sometimes overwritten and confused, these works are impressive manifestations of an unusually powerful cre- ative genius. By his cosmic vision, by his ability to analyze the soul of collectivities, to animate crowds and groups of people, Paul Adam appears as a forerunner of what fules Romains {q.v.) named unanimism.

See: Marcel Batilliat, Paul Adam (1903); Louis Bertrand, ' ‘Le Mysti:re des foules’ et I’ocuvre de Paul Adam,” Revue hebdomadaire, Annde XXX (1921), Tome 1, pp. 133-159; Camille Mauclair, Paul Adam (1921); W.

Scheifley, 'An Epic Genius: Paul Adam,” Sewanee Review, XXIX (1921), 76-89. Adama van Scheltema, Carel Steven (1877- 1924, Dutch poet), was born at Amsterdam.

He attended the municipal Gymnasium, studied medicine for a short time, went on the stage, became an art dealer, and finally decided to devote himself entirely to literature and to the interests of the Social Democratic Labor Party. His socialism made him an opponent of the editors of De Nieuwe Gids (The New Guide), self-centered adherents of 'art for art’s sake.” He was not of the school that believes art to be a cult for the chosen few. To him there could be no art that was not for the many. In one of his songs he likened the hearts of men to rippling brooks which all come to- gether into one glittering stream, a stream of beauty underneath life’s turmoil, which carries the voices of all those hearts to the wide, ocean-like, and infinite dream. The poet, in other words, is not the interpreter of his own self, but must, while giving utterance to his emotions, voice in that utterance the feelings that live inarticulate in the community of men. Adama van Scheltema was, indeed, a singer for the people, and the people listened and gave echo to his song. Each new book that was published was seized upon by the com- posers, who vied Avith one another in setting his ditties to music.

In a vigorously written prose work entitled Grondslagen eener nieuwe Poezie (igo8; Foundations for a New Poetry) he formulated his ideas of what this poetry for the many should be, but his theory was less effective than his practice. His songs will still be living folk art Avhen his prose is forgotten. Ady, Endre (1877-1919, Hungarian poet and writer), was born in fermindszent and died in Budapest. Among Ady’s ancestors there were Calvinist ministers and also members of the minor gentry.

He went to secondary school in Nagykdroly and Zilah and studied law in Debrecen; he was a journalist in Debrecen and Nagyvdrad. In this city he met a highly cultured woman whom he apostrophized as Ldda: there was an exultant and pathetic tone in this relationship. In 1915 Ady married Berta Boneza, a woman much younger than he. He traveled a great deal and often visited 7 AFINOGENOV the Riviera and Paris. His stories and articles sent from Paris to Dudapesti Napid (Budapest Ledger), a daily paper, and to Nyugat (West), a progressive literary bimonthly, aroused con- siderable discussion: conservative politicians and publicists attacked him as a heretic. Ady opposed the Hungarian ruling classes, their complacency, their indifference to social prog- ress. He also criticized their spiritual immo- bility, their aesthetic insensitiveness, the wide gulf between the literate and the illiterate.

Hailing from a family of puritanic integrity and surrounded by a world in which the profit motive in business and callousness in politics prevailed, he drew his inspiration from these contrasts and expressed himself in a poetic vernacular that irritated those who did not possess his linguistic and creative insight. Although his romantic self-centeredness pre- vented him from touching the problems of Hungary at every point, yet his basic visions embraced many phases of Hungarian life, rural conditions, urban complexities, class struggles, the issues of the day, all found apocalyptic expression in the rhythms of his poetry. He was also aware of the problems of the Danubian V^alley; some of his poems show the vastness of these problems and the poet’s ability to approach them with tolerance and understanding. In his strongly personal poems he sang about love, voluptuousness, dissipa- tion, materialism, mysticism, nature, death, and God. His was a tormented soul; Baude- laire’s {(j.v.) battle with the evil spirit of human destiny had its counterpart in Ady’s struggle; no wonder that the French poet’s art affected him somewhat. Nevertheless his “decadence” was not that of a congenitally sick man but of one whom the world sickened by its wicked- ness, selfishness, stupidity, and thieving un- scrupulousncss. By nature he was not a mis- anthrope; he could love with a childlike warmth, as was shown through his attachment to his mother and to his birthplace.

It is reasonable to assume that if the ruling classes of Hungary could have sympathized with his spiritual quest, it would have been easier for him to find a solution for his problems. Ady’s major poems appeared in 1 1 volumes; his essays, sketches, short stories, articles, in five volumes. After his death, attempts were made to publish his collected works; but the tragic aftermath of the First World War, its desolate accompaniment, a despoiled Hungary, did not favor issuing the collected works of a poet. Adapted editions of Ady’s work were pub- lished; often political exigencies resulted in an exploitation of Ady’s poetry that he would have resented had he been alive. His depar ture from conventional phrasing was recog- nized as the prerogative of a poetic genius, and it was also wisely observed that his “modern” idiom echoed the biblical and rural Hungarian language of the iClh, 17th, and 18th centuries. At present Ady’s works, once so unreal to many of his compatriots, appear more authentic than those of any other Hungarian poet of the 20th century; he sym- bolizes an isolated nation’s instinct of self- preservation, the need of change, the courage of convictions, the inadequacy of stale tradi- tions. For some time it was fashionable to praise him without discrimination: recently, however, readers have become more critical, more selective.

Some of his poetry sounds rhetorical or trite because Ady was prone to succumb too quickly to lyrical impulses; nevertheless what is genuine in his poetry suggests lasting value. No doubt Ady’s poetry is better, more original, more exquisite, than his prose. Ver ds arany (1907; Blood and Gold), Szeretndm ha szerelndnek (1909; I Should Like to Be Loved), Ki Idlott engem? (1914; Who Has Seen Me?), A haloltak eldn (1918: Leading the Dead), and the rest of his poetic volumes show the workings of a mind and of a heart extremely sensitive and imaginative. His images are unexpected and varied. Ady’s neurotic disgust with unfairness and plati- tudes, his prophecy of horror and terror, his pursuit of social and individual values are served in their expression by the strength of a skillful versifier who knew just how to blend the visions and fears of his poetic personality.

It has proved difficult to translate Ady into foreign tongues; in English, Watson Kirkcon- nell, the Canadian poet, has been the most successful. Most translations do not reflect the magic of Ady’s poetry. Many books and essays were written about Ady; he has a school of followers; however, he is so original that any imitation immediately betrays the imitator’s lack of originality. Horvdth, Ady ds a legujabb magyar lira (1909); A. Schdpflin, Magyar irdk (1917); H.

Horvath, Neue ungarische Lyrik (1918); J. Horvath, Aranytol Adyig (1921); W. Kirk- connell. The Magyar Muse; an Anthology (1933); J. Remenyi, “Endre Ady, Hungary’s Apocalyptic Poet,” Slavonic Review, Vol. XXII (1944), Part I, pp. Afinogenov, Alexander Nikolayevich (1904- 1941, Russian dramatist), was brought up at Yaroslavl on the Volga and, with a writer as a father and a school teacher as a mother, turned at an early age to literature.

At 15 he started AFINOGENOV 8 writing, at i6 he edited a paper, while still in his teens he published three small books of verse, and at 19 he began having his plays produced at the Proletkult Theatre in Moscow. In his first three plays he turned for his subject matter to labor struggles in other countries and earlier periods. Robert Tim (1923) dealt with a revolt of the weavers in England in the early 19th century. Po tu storonu shcheli (1926; On the Other Side of the Slot) was based on Jack London’s story “South of the Slot,” about a strike among the workers across the cable line on Market Street in San Francisco during the early years of the 20th century. Na perelome (1926: At the Breaking Point) dramatized the unrest in Germany at the end of the First World War.

In his next three plays Afinogenov turned to the life that he found about him in the Soviet Union. Glyadi v oba! (1927: Look with Both Eyes!) emphasized the need for the young Communist to keep his eyes open to the snares laid by enemies of the Soviet Union. Malinovoe varene (1927; Raspberry Jam) showed the danger of a Red army leader car- ing too much for the good things of life.

Volchya tropa (1927; The Trail of the Wolf) depicted an engineer of the old regime trying to cover up his tracks. In the more mature plays which followed, Afinogenov turned from these external con- flicts in order to deal, like Chekhov (q.v.), with the inner drama within the characters; but, instead of showing the disintegration of a de- caying society, he dealt rather with the birth pangs of a new social order. He had the cour- age to discuss boldly the problems that were in the minds of his audiences. In Chudak (1929; The Crank) he took as his hero a mis- understood but enthusiastic and hard-working non-Communist. Crafting And Executing Strategy 17th Edition Slides there. In Strakh (1931: Eng. Fear, 1934) he boldly tackled the theory that the ruling force in the Soviet Union was fear, showing up the fallacy of this belief. Passion- ately discussed, acted in 390 theatres in the Soviet Union and in those of England and America, this was Afinogenov’s greatest suc- cess.

At this same time he published a book discussing his theories of Soviet drama, called Tvorcheski metod teatra (1931; The Creative Method of the Theatre). Another play, Portret (1934: Portrait), took up sympathetically the efforts of a woman to break with the evil traditions of her past and to advance with the new socialist society. During the following years Afinogenov pointed out in his plays the growing menace of fascist aggression. In Dalyokoe (1935: Eng.

Remote, 1936, Distant Point, 1941) he showed how important the morale of even a remote Soviet village is to the defense of the motherland. In Salyut Ispaniya! (1936; Salute, Spain!) he championed the struggle of the Spanish Loyalists against the fascists and donated his proceeds from the play to the widows and children of the Loyalists killed in the struggle. Mat svoikh detei (1940: The Mother of Her Children) symbolized Mother Russia and her devotion to her various children.

Mashenka (1941; performed by the Harvard Dramatic Club in 1942 and in New York in 1943 under the title Listen, Professor!) showed a 15-year-old girl awakening her grandfather to an interest in the new genera- tion and the new Russia. With the Nazi attack on the Soviet Union in June, 1941, Afinogenov wrote Nakanune (per- formed 1942; Eng. On the Eve, in Seven Soviet Plays, 1946), depicting a Russian family on the eve of the invasion and their transformation into active resistance imme- diately afterwards. On November 5, 1941, less than four and a half months after the be- ginning of the invasion, Afinogenov, while on duty as a member of the Soviet Information Bureau, was killed on the Ilyinka in the heart of Moscow by the explosion of a bomb dropped in a Nazi air raid.

He died, as he himself would have said, “full of life.” See: O “Strakhe' (1931), the opinions of 24 authors about Afinogenov’s Fear. Dana, 'Afinogenov,” Theatre Arts, XXVI (1942), 169-176. Akhmatova, Anna (pseud, of Anna Andre yevna Gorenko, 1888-, Russian poet), was born near Odessa into the family of a merchant marine officer.

While still an infant she was taken to Tsarskoye Selo, whither the family moved, and her education began at the Tsarskoye Selo Gymnasium. Before she had finished the Gymnasium curriculum Akhina tova was transferred first to the Smolny Insti tute and then to Fundukleyev Gymnasium in Kiev, and here she graduated. Subsequently she enrolled in the Kiev College for Women in the faculty of jurisprudence; she also attended the Rayev historical-literary courses in St. Petersburg, where she was a student of the poet Annenski {q-v).

In 1910 she married N. Gumilyov {q.v.), also a poet, and traveled with him in Italy, France, and Germany.

In 1918 Akhmatova divorced Gumilyov and married Vladimir Shileyko, an Assyriologist and a poet in his own right. Her home is in Leningrad. 9 ALARCON Akhmatova belongs to the “Acmeist” school of Russian poetry and occupies a distinctive place in that group. Akhmatova’s genre is lyrical poetry. Its form — with its brittle clarity of description, the direct simplicity of narra- tion, and the musical quality of language — pioves an admirable foil for the subject matter, which consists of personal, deeply emotional, pessimistic, and often ironical love lyrics. Akhmatova began writing poetry before she was 11. Her first published poem appeared in the Russian miscellany Sirius (1907), issued in Paris by Gumilyov.

Her first book of verse, Vecher (Evening), with a warm introduction by the poet Kuzmin, was published in 1912. Subsequent books of verse include the im- mensely popular Chyotki (1914; 9th ed., 1923: Prayer Beads), Belaya staya (1917; The White Flock), Podorozhnik (1921; The Buckthorn), and Stikhi (1922; Verses). After 1922 Akhma- tova was silent for the better part of two decades, and only since the outbreak of the Second World War has she returned to poetic activity. Eikhenbaum, Anna Akhmatova (1923); V.

Vinogradov, Poezia Anny Akhma- tovoy (1925). Alain, see Chartier, Emile. Alain-Fournier, see Fournier. Alarcdn, Pedro Antonio de (1833-1891, Span ish novelist), was born in Guadix, Granada, of a noble but impoverished family which claimed a strain of Moorish blood. After re- ceiving his education in the local seminary he chose journalism for his profession. In 1854 with a group of young liberals from Granada, the Cuerda Granadina, he migrated to Madrid, where he became editor of a radical journal, the Ldtigo. Forced to fight a duel with a champion of Queen Isabella II because of his insults to the crown, he found himself on the field of honor deserted by his radical friends, his life spared only by the generosity of his opponent, who fired into the air.

The experience led him to reconsider soberly his political creed and to align himself thereafter with the more conservative forces. When the African war broke out in 1859 he went to the front as the first great modern war cor- respondent. His Diario de un testigo de la guerra en Africa (1859-1860), a best seller, made him rich and famous. He traveled through France and Italy, becoming con- verted in Rome to a militant Catholicism. From 1861 to 1873 he devoted himself to politics as a member of the Uni6n Liberal, a middle of the road party. Defeated in his campaign for reelection to the Cortes by the ultraconservative candidate, he again took up his pen and during the next 10 years pro- duced all his major works. In 1875 he was elected a member of the Spanish Royal Academy and in his inaugural discourse, Sobre la moral en el arte, defended the thesis that the artist cannot be indifferent to the moral implications of his work.

This was heresy to the naturalists, and Alarcdn found himself outside the main literary current of his day. His serious works found no favor with the critics. Offended by what he thought was their injustice, he resolved in 1882 never to write another novel. In 1887 he suffered an attack of apoplexy, and the last years of his life were spent in complete seclusion. Alarcdn was an eclectic by temperament. He belonged to no school, but wrote some- times like a belated romantic, sometimes like a costumbrista, sometimes like a disciple of Balzac. There is no evidence of a consistent development in his work.

He had no gift for inventing a plot or creating characters, but he had great narrative talent. He is at his best in the shorter forms of fiction and with traditional plot material. His first novel, El final de Norma (1855), a highly colored tale with an exotic setting, is romantic trash. His later serious novels — El escdndalo (1875), which tells of the spiritual redemption of a dissolute youth; El niho de la bola (1880), which demonstrates the power of religious faith over human passions; and La prddiga (1882), which presents an unhappy mixture of love and politics — are unrealistically con- ceived, often melodramatic and lacking in good taste. Some of his earlier stories, how- ever, especially those set in the background of the Peninsular Wars, such as “El afrancesado' and “El carbonero alcalde” (in Cuentos, articulos y novelas, 1859, later reissued in the first of the three volumes of cuentos.

His- torietas nacionales, 1881, Cuentos amatorios, 1881, and Narraciones inverosimilcs, 1882), are models of good storytelling. The unassuming love story of a gruff soldier, El capitdn Veneno (1882; Eng. Captain Venom, 1914), is light- hearted and charming. Deer Hunter 2005 Download Full Version Softonic. But Alarcon’s claim to immortality is based chiefly upon his incom- parable tale of the corregidor’s love for the miller’s wife, El sombrero de tres picos (1874; Eng.

The Three-cornered Hat, i8gi, 1918, 1927) which has become the best-known work of Spanish fiction since Don Quixote. In this gay and witty story Alarcdn perfectly and ALAS lO seemingly without effort fitted style to theme and produced an almost faultless masterpiece. In addition to his works of fiction, Alarcdn wrote a volume of poems, Poesias serias y humoristicas (1870); a drama, El hijo prddigo (produced in 1857); several books of travel, De Madrid a Ndpoles (1861), La Alpujarra (1874), Vinjes por Espana (1884); a collection of essays, Juicios literarios y artisticos (1883); and an autobiographical Historia de mis libros (1884).

Catalina, “Biografia del autor,” in Alarcdn, Novelas cottas (1884), pp. Barja, Literatura espanola: Libros y autores modernos, revised ed. Pardo Baz; n, Alarcon; estudio biogrdfico (n.d.).

Alas, Lcopoldo (pseud. Clarin, 1852-1901, Spanish novelist, essayist, and literary critic), was born at Zamora, but he belongs in every respect to Asturias, where his ancestors came from and where, first as a student, then as a professor of law at the University of Oviedo, he lived most of his life. Asturian also were the basic traits of his literary personality — the cosmopolitan intellectual outlook to- gether with a deep sense of attachment to the regional, the subtle critical analysis, the idealistic aspiration, and the ironic sense of humor. It was as a literary critic in the field of contemporary literature that Alas, under the pseudonym Clarfn, became famous. For this task of literary criticism he was well qualified, adding to his natural gifts of a keen mind and a refined taste the advantages of a broad literary and philosophical background, plus a spirit of wide-awake curiosity that kept him always posted about the most recent cultural developments.

His clforts were not always as fruitful as might otherwise have been the case, however, due in part to the exigencies of a daily journalistic task, in part also to what sometimes was an excess of benevolence and other times an excess of passion and of moralistic zeal that caused his criticism to degenerate into a bitter and more or less personal satire. But even with these weak- nesses, his criticism is always stimulating, and his influence was among the most powerful in the renovation of the Spanish literary at- mosphere at the end of the 19th century. Examples of the author’s literary criticism are Solos de Clarin (1881), the eight Folletos literarios (1886-1891), Palique (1893), and Benito Perez Galdds (1889). While the reputation of Alas as a critic has suffered somewhat, his reputation as a novelist, in spite of the small amount of fiction that he wrote — two novels, two volumes of short stories, and some three volumes of cuentos — has constantly increased. This novelistic production falls roughly into two groups, corresponding to the two main phases in the author’s literary career, first as a naturalist, then as an idealist and a spiritual- ist.

An admirer of Zola (q.v.), Alas was for years not only one of the most enthusiastic exponents in Spain of the naturalistic doctrine but also one of its most faithful practitioners, as evidenced by his long novel La Regenta (2 vols., 1884-1885), one of the best novels pro- duced in Spain in the past century. The pro- vincial life of Oviedo (Vetusta in the novel) is woven around a love story of which the Regenta, a married woman, is the coveted prize, the contenders being an unsuccessful church dignitary and a finally successful local Don Juan. The canvas here presented is broad, objective, and minutely detailed, re- minding one in this case even more of Flau- bert (q.v.) than of Zola. Traces of the natural- istic influence are also to be found in the author’s second full-length novel, Su unico hijo (1890), as well as in some of the short stories of the volume Pipd (1886). Side by side with the naturalistic influence, however, an idealistic tendency begins noticeably to affirm itself in these works, which thus appear as a transition between the naturalism of La Regenta and the idealism of the author’s last manner. The germs of this idealism were al- ready present in what had always been a romantic and moralistic disposition of the temperament of Alas, and as the years went by, especially under the influence of the idea of death, it tended to assume the form of a religious spiritualism. This idealism became finally the main source of the author’s in- spiration, and led by it, he wrote some of his most delicate work, short stories such as “Dona Berta’’ (1892) and, above all, the col- lections of cuentos in the volumes El Sen or y lo demds son cuentos (1892 or 1893), Cuentos morales (1896), and El gallo de Socrates (1901).

See: Azorfn, Cldsicos y modernos (1913), pp. SAinz Rodriguez, “ 'Glarin’ y su obra,’’ Revista de las Espahas, 11 (1927), 305- 311, 441-444, 536-538, 604-613. Albanian literature. Literary works in Al- banian, written and published on Albanian soil, became possible only with the rise of a free Albanian state following the Balkan Wars of 1912 and 1913. Up to that time, and 11 ALBANIAN LITERATURE throughout the more than four centuries of Ottoman rule which preceded it, writing in the native tongue had been prohibited under stern penalties rigidly enforced by the Turk- ish gendarmes.

Only in Scutari, capital of northern Albania, and there as a result of the special privileges enjoyed by the Roman Catholic clergy, was any exception to this rule permitted. Yet writing in the Albanian tongue was begun long before 1913, and at first as a consequence of the folk cult which ac- companied 19th-century romanticism. The pioneer in this field was Girolamo de Rada (1813-1903), an Italian of Albanian parentage who began his career by collecting the ballads and songs of his countrymen living in Italy and who turned later to writing original verse in which he used the ballad themes as his material.

De Rada’s principal works are The Song of Seraphina Thopia, Princess of Zadrima (1843), an Albanian Lenore; The So 7 ig of Milosaon (18G4), a tale of old Scutari; Rapsodie albanesi (1866); and Skanderbeg (1873), a song of Albania’s greatest national figure. The heir of De Rada on Italian soil was the scholar and poet Giuseppe Schir6 (1865-1927), known in literary history for his Kenga e Mirdites (1919; The Song of Mir- dita) and for his research in Albanian language and literature.

A great spur to literary activity among the Albanians was afforded by the Congress of Berlin (1878), with its high-handed partition of the Albanian lands. Scarcely had the de- cisions of the Congress been promulgated when, in protest, a league was formed for the defense of Albania’s political rights and the promotion of her cultural advance. Soon books in Albanian began to appear wherever Albanians were to be found outside the home- land. Religious differences, which cut deep in Albania, dividing the Moslem from the man of Orthodox faith and both alike from the Roman Catholic, were put aside as repre- sentatives of the three faiths met to agree on the principles to be observed in the creation of what seemed desirable to all, a truly national Albanian culture. One of the leaders in this movement was the historian and patriot Sami Bey Frdsheri (§ems-ed-Din Sami FraSeri), author of the first Albanian drama, Besa (1901; Pledge of Honor). Another was Pasko Vasa Pasha (pseud.

Wassa Effendi, 1827-1892), a Roman Catholic of Scutari who had served under the Porte as governor of l.ebanon and the author of Albania’s moving hymn of liberation, “Moj Shqypni” (1881; O My Albania). The princi- pal literary figure produced by the movement was Naim Frdsheri (1846-1900), brother of the above-mentioned Sami. Scion of an aris- tocratic southern Albanian family and a member of the powerful Bektashi (BektaSi) sect, Naim Frasheri turned from the career of scholar which lay open to him on completion of his studies abroad to dedicate his talents to the Albanian muse. With the pastoral idyl Bageti e Bujqcsija (1886; Shepherds and Plowmen), published in Sofia and smuggled into Albania by friendly caravans, Frdsheri won the hearts of his countrymen and made himself their spokesman.

Following this with Fletore e Bektashinjet (189G; Book of the Bektashis), Naim Frdsheri turned finally to the theme employed by almost every Albanian writer at one time or another, the story of Skanderbeg, producing a full-length biogra- phy in verse — Istoria e Skenderbeut (1898; The Story of Skanderbeg). Naim Frdsheri died abroad in poverty.

In 1937, however, when Albania celebrated her first quarter century of independence, his remains were brought to Tirana, the Albanian capital, and a monument was erected to his memory. The first Albanian verse to be written on Albanian soil was that of Gjergj Fishta (1856- 1941), an Albanian of humble Roman Catho- lic parentage from the Zadrima highland of Scutari. On account of the special conditions, referred to above, which prevailed in the Scutari region. Father Fishta was able to publish his verses, besides his literary review in Albanian (Hylli i Drites; Star of Light), a whole generation before such a thing was possible anywhere else in the realm. Through the publishing house of the Franciscan Order, to which he belonged.

Father Fishta was able to serve the Albanian cause well. His princi- pal work, and probably the most authentic lyric note in Albanian literature thus far, was Lahuta e Maids (1899-1909; Highland Strings). Taking its inspiration from popular ballads, the poem links the modern knights of the mountains with their prototypes in the Middle Ages and thus makes all Albanian history one in its heroic struggle for freedom and independence. Fishta died in retirement following the Italian invasion of Albania, stubbornly refusing collaboration with the Fascist “new order.’’ With the name of Fishta is linked that of his fellow Franciscan and co- worker, Vin^^nc Prenushi, best known for his collection of northern Albanian folk poems, Range Popullore (1911; Popular Songs). Two dramatists to be noted are Mihal Granieno (1878-), an Orthodox Albanian of Kor^a (Koritza), the principal cultural center ALBANIAN LITERATURE of southern Albania, whose patriotic tragedy Vdekja e Piros (1906; The Death of Pyrrhus) immortalizes not only the great warrior him- self but his wife Antigone, daughter of Ptolemy, as well; and Kristo Floqi, also of Kor^a and also of the Orthodox faith, whose drama Fd e Kombcsi (1912: Faith and Patriotism) elaborates somewhat melodramati- cally the popular theme of mixed marriage. A lawyer by profession, Flocji is also a poet. His Anthollogjia Shqipetare (1923; Albanian An- thology), a collection of epic and lyric verse, was used as a textbook in the schools of free Albania.

The two Albanian writers best known abroad are the essayist and critic Faik Konitza (1875-1942), a member of the Bek- tashi sect, long editor of the review Albania (1896-1909) in Brussels and London, and of the newspaper Dielli (.Sun), which was pub- lished in Boston (1909-); and Fan S, Noli (1881-), bishop of the Albanian Orthodox Church in America. A native of Kyteza, near Adrianople, BLshop Noli received his early edu- cation in Turkey and Egypt. Later he came to the United States and was graduated from Har- vard University and the New England Con- servatory of Music. In 1908 he founded the Albanian Orthodox Church in America. Re- turning to Albania in the early 20’s, Noli served his country as prime minister for six months, only to be forced into exile as a result of the opposition of the feudal lords of the south who objected to his American ideas. Of Bishop Noli’s literary works, exclu- sive of translations, the most important are Istoria e Skenderbeut (1921; The Story of Skanderbeg), a biography; the three-act play Israelite dhe Filistine (1907; Israelite and Philistine); and Byzantin Symphony (1938; The Byzantine Symphony). Probably Noli’s greatest contribution to Albanian literature has been his enrichment and expansion of the language itself, through forcing it to express the ideas and sentiments of such world figures as Shakespeare and Ibsen (q.v.) and Blasco Ibanez (q.v.), to mention but a few of those whose works he has translated.

To the present generation of Albanian writers belong Alexander S. Drenova (pseud. Asdr^n), a native of Kor^a, with his Psalme Murgu (1930; Psalms of a Monk), Rreze Dielli (1904; Facing the Sun), and Endera e Lots (1912; Dreams and Tears; and All Asllani with his Hanko Halla (Aunt Jane), a series of poems full of the homely local wit of Valona.

Then there are Skend^r Bardhi, an American of Albanian parentage, a journal- ist, poet, and teacher, whose poems of the Second World War echo the Albanian's age- old cry of liberty; and Andon Zako (pseud, ^ajupi), author of Bahd Tornori, an anthology of Albanian mountain songs. There is also Midhat Frdsheri (pseud. Lumo Skendo, 1880-), editor of the literary journal Diturija (Education), founded in 1909, and director of the Lumo Skendo Library in Tirana, whose translation of Schiller’s Wilhelm Tell has become well known. Besides these, there are the poet Louis Gurakuqi; Ramiz Harxhi, who wrote poems, Deshirat e Zemeres (1917; Desires of the Heart), in the idiom of Argyrocasira and Kurveleshi of the south; and Hil Mosi, au- thor of Zan’ i Atdheut (1913; Voice of the Fatherland). Branko Merxhani, an essayist, was the editor, up to the time of the Italian invasion, of the literary review Perjkekja Shqiptare (The Albanian Endeavor), pub- lished in 'Eirana. Foqidn Postoli is remem- bered for the popular novels Per Mbrojtjen e Atdheut (1921; In Defense of the Fatherland) and I.ulja e Kujtimit (1924; The Flower of Reminiscence), as well as for the sentimental play Detyra e Mcmes (1925; The Mother’s Duty).

Llo-Mitke Qafczezi has done much to popularize biography. In Milto Sotir-Curra, a native of Opari, is seen the influence of Maupassant (q.v.) and of O. Henry, especially in his Piaget e Kurbetit (1938; Wounds of an Exile). The 30’s saw the meteoric rise of a poetic talent in the person of La.sgush Poradeci ('^99-)' often compared with the Rumanian Mihail Eminescu (q.v.). He has been called “a poet of the future”; opinion is divided as to his worth.

Like so much of Albanian writing, a good deal of which has been produced abroad, Poradeci’s verse has little contact with the real people of Albania. For the true spirit of the land of the Shqipetare, the land of the eagle, as Albanians call their country, one is obliged to turn to the two pioneers of Albanian literature, Naim Fnisheri and Gjergj Fishta, and, in our own time, to the works of Kristo Floqi. Bourcart, “Le Mouvement litteraire en Albanie,” Vie des peuples, XV (1925), 341- 362; S. Shundi, “Lasgush Poradeci.” Balkans, III (i933)» 502-504; X. Lefcoparidis, “L’Al- banie intellectuelle,” Balkans, VI (1934), 79- 84; A.

Klancar, “Modern Albanian Litera- ture,” Books Abroad, XVI (1942), 20-23. Alberti, Rafael (1902-, Spanish poet), was born in Puerto de Santa Marfa, Cddiz, and after studying in the Jesuit academy went to *3 ALCOVER I MASPONS Madrid in 1917.

His book Marinero en tierra won the National Prize for Literature in 1924. He has never engaged in any other activity except the writing of poetry. During the Spanish civil war he was a fervent sup- porter of the republic. He has traveled in Europe and visited Soviet Russia. At the end of the civil war and after living some time in Paris, he went to Buenos Aires, where he is continuing his literary work. Within the total unity of his production, a unity characterized by spiritual grace and technical dexterity, certain stages in his poetry can be distinguished. His first three books, Marinero en tierra (1925), La amante (1926), and El alba del alheli (1927), are a renovation of the beauties and refinements of the rhythmic poetry of the cancioneros of the 16th century, with application to modern and personal themes.

A refined treatment of folk themes and a natural exquisiteness are their distinguishing characteristics. In Cal y canto (1927) he adds subjects from modern life, represented by the elevator, the telegram, railroad stations, and aviation and presented in a Neo-Gongoristic language of dazzling beauty and novelty of usage. In 1929 his most significant book, Sobre los dngeles, was pub- lished.

Here he deviates from the traditional elements used previously; his angels personify virtues, vices, places, and materials. Each poem has an independent value, but in their totality they convey an impression of distress, of anguish, that is a product of the fatal inti- macy between the most beautiful and the most ugly, the most naive and the most per- verse, in that imaginary world of the angels.

From that moment the satisfaction he had found in gracefulness was changed to a con- cern for amplitude and depth. As Alberti de- clared in 1934, his poetry ceases to serve purely aesthetic reason and now obeys revolutionary reason. Poesia (1934) gathers all the afore- mentioned books under one cover and initi- ates the period of the social themes; Trece bandas y cuarenta y ocho estrellas {Poema del Mar Caribe) (1935) and De un momento a otro (1937) contain his poetry in defense of the proletarian man in general and of the Spaniard in a struggle for his liberty. His books published since he has been living in Buenos Aires, especially Entre el clavel y la espada (1941), seem to temper the immediate aspects of the political theme with a greater insight into its poetical transcription.

He has also produced a book in prose. La arboleda perdida (1942), which is a series of fanciful recollections of his childhood. During the first years of his writing Alberti combines with unsurpassed cleverness the two imperatives of literature at the beginning of the century — the folk theme, the essential reality of things Spanish, and the refinements of poetic form which were a part of the pro- gram of modernista poetry. No one is more skillful in putting into verses of Gongoresque lineage not only the perceptible echo of a historical style, but also the authentic qualities of an entirely contemporary emo- tion.

As he sings of the streetcar ticket, the bullfight, and the football player, all the lyric magic of the baroque period comes to life, vivified in these contemporary themes. From this moment he discards all formal striving for effect based on classic tradition. His poetry is receptive to the torments and incoherences brought to literature by the winds of surrealism. But it is never shapeless or spiritually obscure.

On the contrary it is surprising how, even in the depth of his most tortured poetic thought, there still survive the grace and clarity which have characterized his work from the very beginning. Even in his violent and aggressive poems of the modern period, there are continual glimmers of tenderness and delicacy. His crudest mo- ments of expression retain an inevitable verbal charm which constitutes the essence of his poetic personality. Three of his dramatic works are known: Fermin Galdn (1931), which exalts the figure of the lieutenant in rebellion against the monarchy; El hombre deshabitado (1931), an auto of modern thought, descended from the Spanish auto theatre; and La pdjara pinta, a lyrico-farcical fantasy. Salinas, Literatura espanola siglo XX (1941), pp. Proll, ‘“Popu- larismo’ and 'Barroquismo* in the Poetry of Rafael Alberti,” Bulletin of Spanish Studies, XIX (1942), 59-86. Albert i Paradis, Catalina, see Catal^, Victor.

Alcover i Maspons, Joan (1854-1926, Cat- alonian poet), was born in the city of Palma de Mallorca, where he grew up and devoted himself to the practice of law. He did not start to write in Catalan until about 1900; then he found in this particular medium exactly what he needed to produce a truly vigorous literary work.

Poems such as 'La creu” (The Cross), “Mallorca” (Majorca), 'La serra” (The Sierra), 'Ramon Llull,” 'Beetho- ven,” and 'Canco de la balanguera” (Song of the Spinning Girl) attracted the attention of critics. The solidarity existing among the ALDANOV Catalan-speaking countries was shown when the society Rat Penat of Valencia, devoted to the cultivation of literature in the native tongue, made him an honorary member. A deeply felt personal bereavement resulted in elegies of consummate beauty. Manuel de Montoliu has asserted that Joan Alcover is the most profoundly human poet of the Cat- alonian Renaissance. In 1921 Alcover ’s poems were collected in a slender volume. Alcover has, like other poets of Majorca, a true gift of form. Indeed it is curious that poets so disimilar in regard to themes as Alcover, Costa i Llobera, and Alomar {qq.v) should all show an instinctive Parnassianism.

This may be explained in part by the beauties of the land of Majorca and also by the fact that the island is at an intersection of cultural highways running from Italy to Valencia and from France to Barcelona. The language of Joan Alcover has within it a melodic quality diflicult to define without examples, and the poet’s sensibility is extra- ordinary. In spite of the leisurely and gentle flow of this verse, Joan Alcover was capable of appreciating the literary revolution which Rub 935 )- P. Aleixandre, Vicente (1900-, Spanish poet), born in Seville of a rich family, spent his childhood in Andalusia. Later he moved to Madrid, where he has remained and where for a time he halfheartedly studied law. He has never engaged in any kind of professional activity.

Aleixandre is intensely a poet, who feels the irrepressible urge to write poetry — though he is far from voluminous. Ambito (1928) gives evidence of a very personal quality which develops into bitter lyricism with Espadas como labios (1932). He belongs to the Spanish generation, rich in good poets, which underwent the literary evolution fol- lowing the First World War and which learned the lofty poetic discipline and exact- ing standards of the master, Juan Ramdn Jimenez (q.v.).

Aleixandre’s work is less widely known than that of many of his contem- poraries, although he yields to none of them in lyrical fervor. His limited appeal is due perhaps to the fact that Aleixandre repre- sents, to a greater degree than the others, a type of poetry which, evolving by means of unusual poetic associations (probably quite conscious with Aleixandre), affords the reader few means of interpreting the poem by any logical criteria.

The process of penetrating to the doleful essence of this verse is difficult, not because Aleixandre is related to or sym- pathetic with any esoteric group of poets, but because of his own attitude of caution and circumspection which makes him delight in clothing the dramatic and ultimate meanings of his human grief in the poetically mys- terious. All the verse of Aleixandre forms a sort of mighty elegy within the bounds of desperation; the poet himself is not a victim of this desperation but stoically acceptant. The only thing which balances his ardent ro- manticism is this willingness to fuse himself, to become one with the mystery and grief of the world — from the light of the star to the palpitation of the insect. The opposition be- tween liberation and servitude, between de- sire and reality, between poetry and life, are indeed felt romantically; here is a struggle to the death which leaves man and the poet without justification.

Love and death are basal themes in his poetry and these naturally have been fused. 7 'he constant elegiacal char- acter of his work and tlie recurrence of certain poetic mannerisms impart a sustained and uniform tone to his poetry which may even obscure for the not completely alert reader the richness of the elements in this poetic world.

Aleixandre’s dramatic organization of re ality is perfectly expressed in his last book. La destruccion o el amor vvhich won the National Prize for Literature in 1934. If we make allowances for what is merely con- temporaneous, certain qualities in this work suggest the great Spanish romantics. Salinas, Literatura espanola sigh XX (1941). Aleramo, Sibilla (pseud, of Rina Faccio, 1879-, Italian novelist and poet), was born in the city of Alessandria.

Her father, a university pro- fessor, was forced because of financial diffi- culties to take a position as director of a chemi- cal factory in a small town in southern Italy. There she spent her adolescent years and at 16 married one of the factory workers. Nine years later she broke the bonds of her loveless mar- riage, deserting both husband and child for 15 ALEXIS what she thought would be a freer and fuller life. Sibilla Aleramo’s work is for the most part autobiographical. A gifted and very beautiful woman, she writes with fervor of the vicissi- tudes of her emotional life.

Her first novel, Una Donna (1906; Eng. Tr., A Woman at Bay, 1908), was received with much enthusiasm and had great success in Italy and in many other European countries. It has been translated into French, German, Spanish, Swedish, Russian, Polish, and Dutch, as well as English. In this revelation of her youthful life the author touches on various social problems of the time, but is most outstanding in her plea for a forceful assertion of the dignity of womanhood and for woman’s right to an exist- ence as a free agent in the social order.

This theme is further developed in II Passaggio (1921), but with less success as the author puts too great an emphasis on her own particular frustrations. Her other prose works — Andan- do e stando (1921), Trasfigurazione (1922), II Mio Primo Amore (1924), and Amo, dimque sono (1927) — are confessions of her innumera- ble amorous experiences and are saturated throughout with her extreme egocentricity and undiluted sensualism.

Sibilla Aleramo’s endeavors in the field of poetry, Momenti (1921) and Poesie (1929), are all in free verse. They are brief exultations and lamentations too limited and circum- scribed by her personal conceit and sensuality to attain any substantial spiritual quality, ex- cept in rare instances when, despondent and weary, she pens verses about the delusion and vanity of transient carnal pleasure. Endimione (1923) is a poetic drama dealing with one of her many adventures. It was presented at the Theatre de I’tEuvre, Paris, in 1924, but had only an ephemeral success. More recent works are Gioie d’occasione (1930) and the drama Francesca Diamante (not published), but her first novel, Una Donna, is still considered hei best product. Russo, I Narratori (1923), pp.

Pavolini, 'Sibilla Aleramo,’’ Italia che scrive, VIII (1925), 133-134; G. Ravegnani, / Conte mporanei (1930), pp. Alexis, Paul (1847-1901, French journalist, playwright, and novelist), was born at Aix-en- Provence, where he early formed the attach- ment for Emile Zola (q.v.) which was to domi- nate his entire life.

Aher attracting attention by passing off some poems of his own as works of Charles Baudelaire (q.v.), he entered the world of Parisian journalism and soon found ALIBERT himself in a position to render effective aid to the naturalists, to the impressionistic painters, and to Antoine's {q.v.) Th^Atre Libre. Alexis laid the foundations of his literary reputation with a short story, “Apri;s la bataille,” pub- lished in the famous Soirees de Medan (1880), an adaptation in the naturalistic manner of the Matron of Ephesus legend. His talent for the short story is, however, better revealed in “La Fin de Lucie Pellegrin” (1880), based on an incident recounted by George Moore, and in such collections as Le Collage (1883), Trente Romans (1894), and La Comtesse (1897). His novels, Madame Meuriot (1891) and Vallobra (1901), and his plays, most of which conform to the naturalistic pattern, have as their milieu the Parisian demi-monde which Alexis, a confirmed noctambulist, knew perhaps better than any man of his time.

His devotion to Emile Zola, to whom he later remained faith- ful in the darkest days of the Dreyfus case, is reflected in his Emile Zola; notes d’un ami (1882). Always serious and sincere, Alexis wrote without the irony of the other natural- ists; his pictures of life, all based on the docu- ment humain, are rendered in a dry, incisive style which often recalls Stendhal. His famous telegram to Jules Huret, “Naturalisme pas mortl' typifies his life and career; he sincerely believed that the movement led by Zola was to be deathless, and today it may fairly be said of him that he was the only true and constantly faithful naturalist. Huret, Enquite sur I’evolutioji littdraire (1891); R.

Dumesnil, La Publication des Soirees de Midan (1933); L. DefFoux and E. Zavie, Le Croupe de Mddan, 2d ed, (n.d.).

Aiibert, Francois Paul (1873-, French poet), was born at Carcassonne, where he has passed nearly all his life, keeping aloof from literary fads and quarrels and pursuing his own way of perfection. Beginning with L’Arbre qui saigne (1907), he has gone on quietly year after year producing distinguished poetry which has never won great popularity but has met with universal respect. His early work was written in melodious free verse, but he soon turned to the classical forms and attitudes that have caused him to be compared to Ronsard, Chtinier, and, in more modern times, Mor6as (q.v.) and R^gnier (q.v.). His poetry in the main alternates between the ample elegiac and the lapidary epigram and in both styles is marked by nobility, majesty, and great techni- cal mastery. Perhaps it is at its best in his work during the early 20’s, Odes (1922), Eglogues 16 (1923), and Elegies romaines (1923). Here, though the classical spirit certainly predomi- nates, it is to a marked degree influenced by symbolism, and the individual line comes very near the density of Mallarm^ without falling into unintelligibility. The only re- proach that can be, and has been, made con- cerning Alibert’s verse is that it is cold, too deliberate and intellectual, without ecstatic vision.

Certainly it is austere and marked by a purity of thought and expression that perhaps will not attract a romantic spirit. Nor can it be denied that for the most part it is lacking in “high spots.” In his longer poems Alibert’s tone is restrained and even, his effect coming rather from the spacious execution of a noble concept than from the brilliance of an indi- vidual line or stanza. Historically, however, his place seems certain as one of the major figures between Moreas and Valery (q.v.) in the classical renaissance.

See: Yves-G^rard Le Dantec, “Le Mouve- ment po^tique,” Revue des deux mondes, November 15, 1937, pp. 450-453: Ren^ Lalou, Histoire de la litterature f ran false contem- poraine, enlarged ed., Vol. Alomar, Gabriel (J873-1941, Spanish poet and essayist), born in Palma de Mallorca in the Balearic Islands, died in Cairo, where he had remained after service as Spanish minister to Egypt. A poet and essayist, he preferred the Catalan language for his poetry and Spanish for his prose. As a poet, al- though one of the first and most enthusiastic Spanish proponents of futurism, he repre- sents nevertheless a moment of transition be- tween a quasi-P'rench Parnassianism and modernism; his constant concern is the form and style of his compositions. In his essays he manifests an ideology akin to the critical and renovating spirit of the Generation of ’98 (see Spanish literature).

Aware of contem- porary European currents, he exerted a great influence in the intellectual circles of the eastern regions of the Spanish Mediterranean (Balearic Islands, Catalonia, Valencia), who saw in Alomar the standard-bearer of a new literary and political faith. Although the majority of his essays are scattered in journals and newspapers, some of them were collected in a volume entitled Verba (1917). His book of Catalan poetry is entitled La columna de foe (ca. Mascard, “Gabriel Alomar,” Bulletin of Spanish Studies, XX (1943), 48-54.

ALTAMIRA Y CREVEA »7 Alonso, Amado (1897-, Spanish philologue and critic), was born in Navarre. He received his training at the Centro de Estiidios His- tdricos in Madrid under Mendndez Pidal and Navarro Tomis (qq.v.). With the latter he specialized in phonetics and continued in this science in Germany, where he was lecturer in Spanish at Hamburg. In 1927 he went to Buenos Aires as director of the Instituto de Filologia of the University of Buenos Aires, where he now resides permanently.

His early work on phonetics and linguistic geography — noteworthy is the emendation of Meyer- Lul)ke’s La suhngrupacion romdnica del Catalan (1926) — acquired new scope and origi- nality in America as he confronted in their totality, and in part answered, the complex problems posed by the Spanish language on this continent. Problemas de dialectologia hispanoaniericana (1930), El problema de la lengua en America (1935), Castellano, espaiiol, idioma nacional (1938; 2d ed., 1943), numer- ous articles on specific questions, together with the work of Alonso’s collaborators and students in the Instituto de Filologia de Buenos Aires and in the Revista de filologia hispdnica, of which he is editor, are of funda- mental importance, not only for the study of language in America, but for the general history of Spanish. In addition to his study of linguistic history and geography he has devoted himself to problems of style in language, spoken as well as literary. He is the leading exponent in the field of Spanish of the ideas and methods of the new philology and literary criticism which are, in the main, the creation of Karl Vossler. Among his studies in style as a method of literary in- terpretation, most important by reason of their perfection and depth are his article “Estructura de las sonatas de Valle-Incliin” (in Verbiim, Buenos Aires, 1928) and his books Poesia y estilo de Pablo Neruda (1940) and Ensayo sobre la novela histdrica: El inodernisrno en 'La gloria de don Ramiro' de Enrique Larreta (1942). He has also pub- lished, with Pedro Henriquez Urena, an ex- cellent Gramdtica castellana (1938-1939; 2d ed., 1940-1941). Vossler, review of El problema de la lengua en America in Boletin de la Academia Argentina de Letras, III (Buenos Aires, 1935), 36fi-3fi9; I- E.

Soto, Critica y estimacidn (1938), pp. Alonso, Ddmaso (1898-, Spanish philologist, critic, and literary historian), born in Madrid, has devoted his life to the study of Spanish philology and literature. He was trained in the Centro de Estudios Histdricos, where later he was both a collaborator and a pro- fessor.

He has taught in various European and North American universities and colleges, such as Berlin, Cambridge, Oxford, Stanford, and Columbia, and is a professor at the Uni- versity of Madrid. In the field of literary history and criticism he is to be considered as the most important commentator and critic of all time of G6n- gora’s poetry. In 1935 was published La lengua poetica de Gdngora, a masterly study of that poet’s poetic system. Already in 1927 he had produced his edition of the Soledades of Gongora, with a modern prose version, a model of illuminating precision. Numerous articles on different aspects of this writer’s poetry and style have appeared in periodicals, principally the Revista de filologia. His short book.

La poesia de San Juan de la Cruz, was published in 1943. In this work he gives a historical, stylistic, and poetical interpreta- tion of the best poems of the 16th-century mystic. His critical work is outstanding for its preparatory and documental solidity, for the rigor and precision of method, and especially for its fine taste and deep literary sensibility. D.-imaso Alonso brought to criticism and literary history the gifts of the delicate and original writer revealed in his Poemas puros: Poemillas de la ciudad (1921) and in verse pub- lished in magazines.

Certain vivid narratives by Alonso have appeared in literary reviews of a distinctly modernistic tendency. In these the strangeness of theme and a quality of vision combined with a style perfectly organ- ized and of high expressive potentialities pro- vide some of the very best pages of modern Spanish prose. V'albuena Prat, La poesia espaiiola contempordnea (1930), pp. Altamira y Crevea, Rafael (1866-, Spanish critic, historian, jurist, and political scientist), was born in Alicante. He has had a long and distinguished academic career, especially at the University of Madrid. He has been presi- dent of the Ibero-American Institute of Comparative Law and of other important international organizations and in 1922 was appointed a judge of the Permanent Court of International Justice. He is recognized as one of the most enlightened citizens of modern Spain.

He has faced the problems of his country with a realistic approach coupled ALTENBERG i8 with a sense of national and international civic responsibility. Altamira's work is char- acterized by a sane combination of theory and practice in the fields of history and law and in their multitudinous connections and ramifications.

At the university of Oviedo he was instrumental in the establishment of the Extension Universitaria Espauola, whose main object was to bring the university to the workers of the surrounding region. His earliest work of importance is the Historia de la propiedad comunal (1880; revised ed., 1929-). The Psicologia del pueblo espauol (1902; 2d ed., 1918) is a notable contribution to the study of the historical events and factors which have made the Spanish people what they are today.

Altamira is best known for his solid and trustworthy Historia de la civilizacidn espaiiola (3 vols., 1901-1906; 4th ed., 4 vols., 1928). His historical method is based on extreme caution in generalizations and on an objectivity properly limited by the use of documentary evidence. He can be con- sidered one of the foremost historians of the first half of the 20th century for his contribu- tions in the history of Spanish law, Spanish colonial history, and the teaching of history.

His name is widely known and respected in international circles, and his lectures have taken him to universities in Europe, the United States, and L«tin America. Although living in exile today in Mexico, he continues his researches against all odds, and one of his latest publications is the Tecnica de inves- tigacion del derecho indiano (Mexico, 1939). See: Anonymous, 'Notas sobre la vida y obras de Rafael Altamira y Crevea,” Hispania, XI (1928), 400-406; Havelock Ellis, The Soul of Spain, 1931 ed., pp. Altenberg, Peter (pseud, of Richard Eng- liinder, 1859-1919, Austrian writer of prose sketche.s), was born in Vienna and died there. Widely known as a bizarre character frequent- ing literary cafi^s, he was also revered as the friend of frank and free souls in the lower walks of life. In his published works and in his famous table talk alike he was a restless apostle of beauty and health and a brilliant philosophical humorist who adored nature and kindness and nonchalantly unmasked the despicable “bourgeois.” Having, in his own words, fervently loved ladies both noble and very ignoble, loitered in the woods, been a law student and a medical student, but never having actually studied either law 01 medicine, Altenberg published at the age of 37 his first book, Wie ich es sehe (1896). “How 1 see it” — with the stress on see — was to be the approach also in his other writings, the it always being “life itself” {Vita ipsa, 1918), filled w'ith most “real” fairy tales {Miirchen des Lebens, 1908) and pictures, beautiful and revealing (Dilderbogen des kleinen Lebens, 1909).

Altenberg wanted to give “extracts of life, dehydrated and canned in two or three pages.” Whether these extracts be descriptive or narrative, monologue or dialogue, sublime or abusive, his bohemian existence is their background, explicit or implied. His impressions are submerged in the effort to disclose the values he cared for and to win his readers over to his enthusiastic beliefs — that physiological perfection is the basis of moral, intellectual, aesthetic perfection; that mental genius in men has its counterpart in aesthetic perfection in women; that radical “faithfulness to one’s self,” accompanied by unselfishness, is the highest good. These con- victions pervade the witty and melancholic, shocking and delicate aphorisms, idyls, prose poems and manifestoes of Altenberg’s remain- ing books: Was der Tag mir zutrdgt (1901), Prodromos (1906), Neues Altes (1911), Sem- mering igii (1913), Fechsung (1915), Nach- fechsung (1916), Mein Lebensabend (1919), Der Nachlass (posthumous, 1925). He attacks all that seems hypocritical in a vapid civiliza- tion. He praises, with equal enthusiasm, noble- ness of mind and of body, finding these in the socially humblest creature as well as in a famous actress. Animals, children, adolescent girls — creatures nearer to nature than the bor- ing world of man — are the preferred objects of his admiration.

Altenberg has a supreme talent for convey- ing impressions and implications with a mini- mum of visible effort in concentrated prose or in a revealing dialogue of a few lines. Out- standing is his gift for making silent things resonant and for muflling the loud ones.

His last books are full of bitterness and misan- thropy. Alone in his sickroom, he turned his power of observation on himself, reflecting upon his passing life, describing the inter- mittent approach of death — until a few days before the end. Friedell, Ecce Poeta (1912): A. Polgar, Der Nachlass von Peter Altenberg (1925), pp. Altolaguirre, Manuel (1904?-, Spanish poet), was born in Mdlaga, Andalusia, where he spent his childhood and part of his youth and where, in 1926, he made a start in litera- ture with his book Las islas invitadas y otros ALVAREZ QUINTERO poemas.

With Emilio Prados (q.v.) he edited the journal litoral, which constitutes an im- portant part of the productive effort of the so-called Southern Group. His Ejemplo ap- peared in 1927 as a supplement to litoral. Later he lived in Madrid, Paris, and London without interrupting his poetic production or losing his connections with the new gen- eration headed by Garcia Lorca (q.v.). Before founding litoral he had founded the journal Ambos, and later he established two others, Poesia and H^roe. These undertakings reveal a great interest in typography, which he made a fine art and which became the favor- ite occupation of his life. In 1936 the military movement caught him in Madrid. He col- laborated with the government, followed it on its odyssey, expressed poetically and with great emotion the feelings of popular hero- ism, and at the triumph of Franco emigrated to Havana.

There he has written many more works and founded the printing establish- ment 'La Verdnica.” He has also cultivated lyrical biography (Garcilaso, 1932), criticism, the drama, the essay, and has lectured extensively. According to his own declaration his poetry 'reveals as a principal influence that of Juan Ramdn Jinidnez [q.v.], has been receptive to but not overwhelmed by that of Gdngora, and feels itself to be a younger brother to that of Salinas [q.v.]. Moreover, Aleixandre and Cer- nuda [qq.v.] directly influenced his literary and personal formation.' As with all of his group, in Altolaguirre the traditionally Span- ish elements are combined with all the in- dependence of his own generation. There is to be found in him, also, a gentle and tender sensibility, a childlike uneasiness in the presence of an immense unnamed grief which result in pages deep and exquisite such as those dedicated to his dead mother. See: Gerardo Diego, Poesia espanola (Antologia) (1934).

PP- 536 - 552. Laurel: Antologia de la poesia moderna en lengua espafiola (1941), pp. 1026-1048, 1133. Alvarez Quintero, Serafin (1871-1938) and Joaquin (1873-1944; Spanish dramatists), were born in Utrera, south of Seville, and were Andalusian to the marrow of their bones, not only in the scenes of most of their plays, but also in their sunshiny humor, their zest for life, and their great fecundity.

In the development of the short play, the sainete, they are definitely in the tradition of the 16th-century Lope de Rueda (pasos or curtain raisers), of Cervantes and Quifiones de Benavente (entremeses or interludes), and of the 18th-century Ramdn de la Cruz (sainetes). They continue the romantic tradition of in- sistence on local color, of the costumbristas of the 19 th century such as Mesonero Romanos and Est^banez Calderdn. The Anda- lusianism of these attractive brothers can be somewhat more exactly defined by negatives: the alluring region of their birth is not the land of Carmen, not the country of blood, passion, and tragedy described by the poet Garcia Lorca (q.v.), not the home of tired descendants of superrefined Arabs with over- delicate sensibilities, and not merely the land of guitars, castanets, gypsy dances, and bull- fights. Least of all, to the Quinteros, is it a region beset with dreadful and still unsolved economic, social, and political dilficulties, of latifundia and oppressed peasantry. Andalusia is all of those things, but Andalusians are also as the Quinteros present them, a gay — or sad — sentimental folk, with a usually satisfactory adjustment of individual to milieu, a truly splendid sense of humor. Not all Andalusian servants are as amusing as they appear in these plays, and not all Anda- lusia is quite so picturesquely charming, but spectators are not inclined to protest at artis- tic heightening of scene or character when the essence is true and valid.

Nor do they much mind, either, if the Sliperficial is exalted into the realm of dramatic art. The Quinteros began in their teens to write plays, which were acted in the patio of their own house. They were still in their teens when their farce called Esgrima y amor was acted in the Teatro Cervantes in Seville in 1889. In that year they went to Madrid, where for some time before they became suc- cessful they struggled to support themselves with small positions in the Treasury (Ha- cienda) Department. El ojito derecho and La reja (both 1897), one-act pieces, attracted favorable attention. The musical comedy (zarzuela) La buena sombra (1898) made them well known.

By 1900 they declared they had 51 plays in manuscript, and for a long time they produced five or six a year. Los galeotes (1900) is one of their more serious plays. Based on the episode of the galley slaves in Don Quixote (Part I, Ch. XXII), it is a study of ingratitude, with the scene laid in a second hand bookshop in Madrid. The characters are superior to the plot. El patio (1900) and Las (lores (1901) are among the authors’ most successful Andalusian genre pictures. The ac- tion is slight, the portrayal of types and back- ground masterly.

The patio and the flowers acquire real personality of their own. Pepita ALVARO 80 Reyes (1903) studies a woman who is torn by the lure of the stage and her love for home.

The conflict is left unsolved. El amor que pasa (1904; Eng.

Love Passes By, in Four Comedies, 1932) shows the sensitive longings of a romantic woman in a provincial town. Manana de sol (1905; Eng. Tr., A Bright Morn- ing, 1916) is a delightful curtain raiser (paso de comedia) based on a dolora of Campoamor (q.v.).

It has been translated into several languages. In El genio alegre (1906) an austere household is transformed by the young laughter of the pretty Andalusian heroine. Las de Cain (1908) recounts merrily how Pro- fessor Cain manages to marry off his five daughters. In its counterpart, Las de Abel (1926), which is a better play, marriage is not achieved.

Doha Clarines (1909; Eng. In Four Comedies, 1932) is a serious character study of a blunt and slightly acidulous woman, with a passion for truth and straight- forwardness.

Based on Bt^cquer (q.v.), La rima eterna (1910) is delicate and poetic. Malvaloca (1912; Eng.

Tr., 1916), dedicated to the great scholar Men^ndez y Pelayo (q.v.) and awarded a prize by the Spanish Academy, is one of the authors’ most serious and most famous plays. It portrays the redemption, by a serious Asturian, of the apparently gay and light- hearted Andalusian Malvaloca, whose “life has been a long novel.” The sentimental note is highly emphasized. Puebla de las mujeres (1912; Eng.

Tr., The Women Have Their Way, in Four Plays, 1927), admirably con- structed, is all Andalusian gayety and laughter. Don Juan, buena persona (1918) presents a new and highly amusing kind of Don Juan, a most kindhearted fellow whose former inamoratas keep coming to him with all their problems, so that he is, as he says, “the slave of his female slaves.” He finally marries an excellent woman named Amalia.

La prisa (1921) contrasts modern haste with sweet Andalusian leisure. If the Quinteros added no new note in subsequent plays, such as Lo que hablan las mujeres (1932), El susto (1933), and La inglesa sevillana (1935), they at least showed that their humor did not diminish with age. See: Helen and Harley Granville-Barker, introductions to S. Alvarez Quintero, Four Plays (1927) and Four Comedies (1932); A. Bell, Contemporary Spanish Litera- ture, revised ed.

Alvaroi Corrado (1889-, Italian novelist), was born in Calabria. He has had what might be called a typical literary career, having been an editor of the Resto del Carlino and the Cor- riere della sera. His first book of importance, L’Uomo nel labirinto (1922), reveals some in- fluence of Bontempclli (q.v.) as well as the author’s own predilection for psychological study. Without abandoning his interest in the inner soul of man, he turned to a definite and meticulously poitrayed background for two of his later — and still most highly regarded — works. La Signora dell'isola and Gente in Aspromonte. Both of these volumes appeared in 1930, and the setting was the author’s native Calabria.